bullet1   Education

This Map includes key word searches and relevant sources of funding in educational research with an emphasis on Math, Science, and Community. It is designed to provide an overview of the theories, practice, and resources available to educators in general. It is an organized starting point rather than a completed end product.


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» See document: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itcon.html

bullet2   Symbolic Analysis

bullet2   Foundational Texts

» See document: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/etexts.html

bullet2 Technology in Education

bullet2 Theories + Learning

  • Models
    » See document: http://www.funderstanding.com/about_learning.cfm
     
  • Learning Theories
    » See document: http://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm
     
  • How People Learn; Brain | Mind | Experience | School
    Executive Summary


    Learning is a basic, adaptive function of humans. More than any other species, people are designed to be flexible learners and active agents in acquiring knowledge and skills. Much of what people learn occurs without formal instruction, but highly systematic and organized information systems--reading, mathematics, the sciences, literature, and the history of a society--require formal training, usually in schools. Over time, science, mathematics, and history have posed new problems for learning because of their growing volume and increasing complexity. The value of the knowledge taught in school also began to be examined for its applicability to situations outside school.

    Science now offers new conceptions of the learning process and the development of competent performance. Recent research provides a deep understanding of complex reasoning and performance on problem-solving tasks and how skill and understanding in key subjects are acquired. This book presents a contemporary account of principles of learning, and this summary provides an overview of the new science of learning.

    FIVE THEMES THAT CHANGED CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING  

    In the last 30 years, research has generated new conceptions of learning in five areas. As a result of the accumulation of new kinds of information about human learning, views of how effective learning proceeds have shifted from the benefits of diligent drill and practice to focus on students' understanding and application of knowledge.

    1. Memory and structure of knowledge Memory has come to be understood as more than simple associations; evidence describes the structures that represent knowledge and meaning. Knowing how learners develop coherent structures of information has been particularly useful in understanding the nature of organized knowledge that underlies effective comprehension and thinking.

    2. Analysis of problem solving and reasoning One of the most important influences on contemporary learning theory has been the basic research on expert learners. Learning theory can now account for how learners acquire skills to search a problem space and then use these general strategies in many problem-solving situations. There is a clear distinction between learned problem-solving skills in novice learners and the specialized expertise of individuals who have proficiency in particular subjects.

    3. Early foundations The development of creative methodologies for assessing infants' responses in controlled research settings has done much to illuminate early learning. Scientific studies of infants and young children have revealed the relationships between children's learning predispositions and their emergent abilities to organize and coordinate information, make inferences, and discover strategies for problem solving. As a result, educators are rethinking the role of the skills and abilities children bring with them to school to take advantage of opportunities for learning in school.

    4. Metacognitive processes and self-regulatory capabilities Individuals can be taught to regulate their behaviors, and these regulatory activities enable self-monitoring and executive control of one's performance. The activities include such strategies as predicting outcomes, planning ahead, apportioning one's time, explaining to one's self in order to improve understanding, noting failures to comprehend, and activating background knowledge.

    5. Cultural experience and community participation Participation in social practice is a fundamental form of learning. Learning involves becoming attuned to the constraints and resources, the limits and possibilities, that are involved in the practices of the community. Learning is promoted by social norms that value the search for understanding. Early learning is assisted by the supportive context of the family and the social environment, through the kinds of activities in which adults engage with children. These activities have the effect of providing to toddlers the structure and interpretation of the culture's norms and rules, and these processes occur long before children enter school.

    EXPERT PERFORMANCE  

    By definition, experts have developed particular ways to think and reason effectively. Understanding expertise is important because it provides insights into the nature of thinking and problem solving. It is not simply general abilities, such as memory or intelligence, nor the use of general strategies that differentiate experts from novices. Instead, experts have acquired extensive knowledge that affects what they notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information in their environments. This, in turn, affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems.

    Key scientific findings have come from studies of people who have developed expertise in areas such as chess, physics, mathematics, electronics, and history. The examples are important not because all school children are expected to become experts in these or any other areas, but because the study of expertise shows what the results of successful learning look like.

    Key conclusions:

      • Experts notice features and meaningful patterns of information that are not noticed by novices.
      • Experts have acquired a great deal of content knowledge that is organized, and their organization of information reflects a deep understanding of the subject matter.
      • Experts' knowledge cannot be reduced to sets of isolated facts or propositions but, instead, reflects contexts of applicability, i.e., it is "conditionalized."
      • Experts are able to retrieve important aspects of their knowledge with little attentional effort.
      • Though experts know their disciplines thoroughly, this does not guarantee that they are able to instruct others about the topic.
      • Experts have varying levels of flexibility in their approaches to new situations.

    TRANSFER OF LEARNING  

    Another aspect of effective learning is its durability--does the learning have long-term impact in the ways it influences other kinds of learning or performance? Research studies on the concept of transfer of learning comprise a vast literature that can be synthesized into the new science of learning.

    Key conclusions:

      • Skills and knowledge must be extended beyond the narrow contexts in which they are initially learned. For example, knowing how to solve a math problem in school may not transfer to solving math problems in other contexts.
      • It is essential for a learner to develop a sense of when what has been learned can be used--the conditions of application. Failure to transfer is often due to learners' lack of this type of conditional knowledge.
      • Learning must be guided by generalized principles in order to be widely applicable. Knowledge learned at the level of rote memory rarely transfers; transfer most likely occurs when the learner knows and understands underlying principles that can be applied to problems in new contexts.
      • Learners are helped in their independent learning attempts if they have conceptual knowledge. Studies of children's concept formation and conceptual development show the role of learners' mental representations of problems, including how one problem is similar and different from others and understanding the part-whole relationships of the components in the overall structure of a problem.
      • Learners are most successful if they are mindful of themselves as learners and thinkers. A learner's self-awareness as a learner and the role of appraisal strategies keep learning on target or help keep the learner asking if s/he understands. Learners can become independent learners who are capable of sustaining their own learning--in essence, this is how human beings become life-long learners.

    CHILDREN AS LEARNERS  

    While there are remarkable commonalties across learners of all ages, children differ from adult learners in many ways. Studies of young children offer a window into the development of learning, and they show a dynamic picture of learning as it unfolds over time. A fresh understanding of infant cognition and of how young children build on early learning predispositions also offers ideas on ways to ease their transition into formal school settings.

    Key findings:

      • Humans have a predisposition to learn in certain domains, and young children actively engage in making sense of their worlds. In particular domains, such as biological and physical causality, number, and language, infants and young children have strong predispositions to learn rapidly and readily. These biases toward learning support and may make early learning possible and pave the way for competence in early schooling.
      • Children lack knowledge and experience, but not reasoning ability. Although young children are inexperienced, they reason facilely with the knowledge they have.
      • Precocious knowledge may jump-start the learning process, but because of limited experience and undeveloped systems for logical thinking, children's knowledge contains misconceptions. Misinformation can impede school learning, so teachers need to be aware of the ways in which children's background knowledge influences what they understand. Such awareness on the part of teachers will help them anticipate children's confusion and recognize why the children have difficulties grasping new ideas.
      • Strategies for learning are important. Children can learn practically anything by sheer will and effort, but when required to learn about non-privileged domains, they need to develop strategies of intentional learning.
      • Children need to understand what it means to learn, who they are as learners, and how to go about planning, monitoring, and revising, to reflect upon their learning and that of others, and to learn to determine for themselves if they understand. These skills of metacognition provide strategic competencies for learning.
      • Children are both problem solvers and problem generators. They attempt to solve problems presented to them, and they seek novel challenges. They refine and improve their problem-solving strategies in the face of failure and often build on prior successes. They persist because success and understanding are motivating in their own right.
      • Adults help children make connections between new situations and familiar ones. Children's curiosity and persistence are supported by adults who direct children's attention, structure experiences, support learning attempts, and regulate the complexity and difficulty levels of information for children.

    Children, thus, exhibit capacities that are shaped by environmental experiences and the individuals who care for them. Developmental processes involve interactions between children's early competencies and the environmental supports--strengthening relevant capacities and pruning the early abilities that are less relevant to the child's community. Learning is promoted and regulated by both the biology and ecology of the child; learning produces development.

    COLLATERAL DEVELOPMENT OF MIND AND BRAIN

    Advances in neuroscience are confirming many theoretical hypotheses, including the important role of early experience in development. What is new, and therefore important for a new science of learning, is the convergence of evidence from a number of scientific fields. As developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience, to name but three, have contributed vast numbers of research studies, details about learning and development have converged to form a more complete picture of how intellectual development occurs. Clarification of some of the mechanisms of learning by neuroscience advanced with the advent of non-invasive imaging technologies, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These technologies enabled researchers to observe directly functions of human learning.

    The key finding is the importance of experience in building the structure of the mind by modifying the structures of the brain: development is not solely the unfolding of preprogrammed patterns. Some of the rules that govern learning are now known. One of the simplest rules is that practice increases learning and there is a corresponding relationship between the amount of experience in a complex environment and the amount of structural change in the brain.

    Key conclusions:

      • Learning changes the physical structure of the brain.
      • Structural changes alter the functional organization of the brain; in other words, learning organizes and reorganizes the brain.
      • Different parts of the brain may be ready to learn at different times.

    DESIGNS FOR LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS  

    Theoretical physics does not prescribe the design of a bridge, but surely it constrains the design of successful ones. Similarly, learning theory provides no simple recipe for designing effective learning environments, but it constrains the design of effective ones. New research raises important questions about the design of learning environments--questions that suggest the value of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how it is assessed.

    A fundamental tenet of modern learning theory is that different kinds of learning goals require different approaches to instruction; new goals for education require changes in opportunities to learn. The design of learning environments is linked to issues that are especially important in the processes of learning, transfer, and competent performance. Those processes, in turn, are affected by the degree to which learning environments are student centered, knowledge centered, assessment centered, and community centered.

    Key conclusions:

      • Learner-centered environments Effective instruction begins with what learners bring to the setting; this includes cultural practices and beliefs, as well as knowledge of academic content. A focus on the degree to which environments are learner centered is consistent with the evidence showing that learners use their current knowledge to construct new knowledge and that what they know and believe at the moment affects how they interpret new information. Sometimes learners' current knowledge supports new learning; sometimes it hampers learning.

    People may have acquired knowledge yet fail to activate it in a particular setting. Learner-centered environments attempt to help students make connections between their previous knowledge and their current academic tasks. Parents are especially good at helping their children make connections. Teachers have a harder time because they do not share the life experiences of all of their students, so they have to become familiar with each student's special interests and strengths.

      • Knowledge-centered environments The ability to think and solve problems requires knowledge that is accessible and applied appropriately. An emphasis on knowledge-centered instruction raises a number of questions, such as the degree to which instruction focuses on ways to help students use their current knowledge and skills. New knowledge about early learning suggests that young students are capable of grasping more complex concepts than was believed previously. However, these concepts must be presented in ways that are developmentally appropriate by linking learning to their current understanding. A knowledge-centered perspective on learning environments highlights the importance of thinking about designs for curricula. To what extent do they help students learn with understanding versus promote the acquisition of disconnected sets of facts and skills? Curricula that are a "mile wide and an inch deep" run the risk of developing disconnected rather than connected knowledge.
      • Assessment to support learning Issues of assessment also represent an important perspective for viewing the design of learning environments. Feedback is fundamental to learning, but feedback opportunities are often scarce in classrooms. Students may receive grades on tests and essays, but these are summative assessments that occur at the end of projects. What are needed are formative assessments, which provide students with opportunities to revise and improve the quality of their thinking and understanding. Assessments must reflect the learning goals that define various environments. If the goal is to enhance understanding and applicability of knowledge, it is not sufficient to provide assessments that focus primarily on memory for facts and formulas.
      • Community-centered environments The fourth, important perspective on learning environments is the degree to which they promote a sense of community. Students, teachers, and other interested participants share norms that value learning and high standards. Norms such as these increase people's opportunities and motivation to interact, receive feedback, and learn. The importance of connected communities becomes clear when one examines the relatively small amount of time spent in school compared to other settings. Activities in homes, community centers, and after-school clubs can have important effects on students' academic achievement.

    EFFECTIVE TEACHING  

    Expertise of any kind involves more than a set of general problem-solving skills; it also requires well-organized knowledge of concepts and inquiry procedures. Various disciplines are organized differently and have their own methods of inquiry. For example, the evidence needed to support a set of historical claims is different from the evidence needed to prove a mathematical conjecture, and both of these differ from the evidence needed to test a scientific theory.

    Key conclusions:

      • Effective teachers need "pedagogical content knowledge"--knowledge about how to teach in particular disciplines, which is different from knowledge of general teaching methods.
      • Expert teachers know the structure of their disciplines and this provides them with cognitive roadmaps that guide the assignments they give students, the assessments they use to gauge student progress, and the questions they ask in the give and take of classroom life.

    In short, teachers' knowledge of the discipline and their knowledge of pedagogy interact. But knowledge of the discipline structure does not in itself guide a teacher. Expert teachers are sensitive to those aspects of the discipline that are especially hard and easy for new students to master. An emphasis on interactions between disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical knowledge directly contradicts a common misconception about what teachers need to know in order to design effective learning environments for their students. The misconception is that teaching consists only of a set of general methods, that a good teacher can teach any subject, and that content knowledge alone is sufficient.

    Teacher learning is relatively new as a research topic, so there is limited information about it. Nevertheless, the research that exists, generally in the form of rich case studies, provides important information about what kinds of learning opportunities teachers need in order to change their practices.

    Key findings:

      • Opportunities for teachers to continue their learning fall short when viewed from the perspective of being learner, knowledge, assessment, and community centered. Preservice programs often fail to provide the kinds of learning experiences that lead to learning for understanding or teaching for understanding.
      • Successful learning for teachers requires a continuum of coordinated efforts that range from preservice education to early mentored teaching to opportunities for lifelong development as professionals. Creating such opportunities represents a major challenge.

    NEW TECHNOLOGIES  

    A number of the features of new technologies are consistent with the principles of a new science of learning.

    Key conclusions:

      • Because many new technologies are interactive, it is now easier to create environments in which students can learn by doing, receive feedback, and continually refine their understanding and build new knowledge.
      • Technologies can help people visualize difficult-to-understand concepts, such as differentiating heat from temperature. Students are able to work with visualization and modeling software similar to the tools used in nonschool environments to increase their conceptual understanding and the likelihood of transfer from school to nonschool settings.
      • New technologies provide access to a vast array of information, including digital libraries, real-world data for analysis, and connections to other people who provide information, feedback, and inspiration, all of which can enhance the learning of teachers and administrators as well as students.

    There are many ways that technology can be used to help create such environments, both for teachers and for the students whom they teach. However, many issues arise in considering how to educate teachers to use new technologies effectively. What do they need to know about learning processes? About the technology? What kinds of training are most effective for helping teachers use high-quality instructional programs? What is the best way to use technology to facilitate teacher learning? Good educational software and teacher-support tools, developed with full understanding of principles of learning, have not yet become the norm.

    RESEARCH FOR THE FUTURE  

    It will take time and effort to communicate the new approaches to learning and teaching throughout the very decentralized U.S. education system. We suggest a number of ways to begin the process through a research agenda that follows from our conclusions. The research will have greatest potential for impact in education if it is implemented as a program of research, making educational research an integrative science.

    The Research Foundations of the Learning Sciences  

      • The committee recommends a commitment to basic research programs in cognition, learning, and teaching.

    Our report has shown the payoff from investing in research on such topics as the foundational role of learners' prior knowledge in acquiring new information; plasticity and adaptability of learning; the importance of social and cultural contexts in learning; understanding the conditions of transfer of learning; how the organizational structure of a discipline affects learning; how time, familiarity, and exploration impact fluency in learning; and many other topics. While these areas have produced an impressive body of research findings, the research needs to be continued. The framework has been constructed from the earlier research; details now need to be provided in order to advance the science of learning by refining the principles.

      • The committee recommends establishing new research programs in emerging areas, including technology, neurocognition, and sociocultural factors that mediate learning. Research is needed on the interrelations between learning and learning environments and between teaching and learning.

    This research will build on current findings in areas such as how children learn to apply their competencies as they encounter new information; how early competencies relate to later school learning; the conditions and experiences that support knowledge scaffolding; and how representational systems are challenged by new tools of technology, such as visual cognition and other types of symbolic thinking.

      • The committee recommends new assessment research to focus on improving and implementing formative assessment.

    Teachers need a variety of supports and learning opportunities for making their classrooms assessment centered in ways that support learning. Research questions that remain to be addressed include: How does a teacher use assessment? What skills do teachers need in order to be able to use formative assessments in ways that will improve their teaching? What kinds of supports do teachers need for learning and adopting innovative assessment processes?

    The Foundations for Science Learning

    The committee held a workshop on children's cognitive development and the ways in which cognitive science research has influenced science instruction in recent years. The workshop explored ways in which new research findings can facilitate new directions in areas of science and mathematics learning.

    Key questions:

      • How does the field "scale up" successful demonstrations of research-based curricula so that they can be implemented in many diverse settings under the guidance of many different kinds of teachers?
      • Which factors influence the conversion of research knowledge into effective instructional methods in real settings?
      • Do strategies that work for science education also work to improve instruction in other subject areas?
      • How can preschool children be assisted in developing representational structures so that there are bridges, rather than gaps, between early and later school learning?
      • How can collaborative learning environments be organized in ways that counteract societal stereotypes and tap diversity as a positive resource for learning?
      • Which kinds of assessments can effectively measure new kinds of science learning?
      • How do the features of a constructivist curriculum interact with other social factors in classrooms?
      • What is the impact of new technologies on school performance?

    Methodologies of the Learning Sciences  

    The research areas relevant to the science of learning are demonstratively broad, including cognitive development, cognitive science, developmental psychology, neuroscience, anthropology, social psychology, sociology, cross-cultural research, research on learning in subject areas such as science, mathematics, history, and research on effective teaching, pedagogy, and the design of learning environments. New technologies are needed for assessing learning in ways that track the growth of learning, not just the cumulation of facts. Developing effective research methodologies is particularly important for research from this diverse array of disciplines.

      • The committee recommends that government agencies and research foundations develop initiatives and mechanisms of support specifically aimed at strengthening the methodological underpinnings of learning sciences. Such mechanisms should include cross-field collaborations, internships, visiting scholar programs, training junior scholars in interdisciplinary approaches, and other procedures to foster collaborations for learning and developing new methodologies that can lead to more rigorous investigations in the science of learning.
      • The committee recommends research aimed at developing and standardizing new measures and methods. Studies should be conducted and validated with diverse populations. New statistical techniques should be developed for analyzing the complex systems of learning. New qualitative measurement techniques need to be developed.
      • The committee recommends new research that is focused on ways to integrate qualitative and quantitative methods across the learning sciences.

    Collaborations in the Science of Learning

    This book emphasizes the breadth of knowledge areas that affect learners and the significant advances that have been the direct result of collaborative research efforts across disciplines. That kind of collaboration is critical to further development of the learning sciences.

      • The committee recommends that government agencies and research foundations explicitly support a wide variety of interdisciplinary collaborations in the learning sciences. Such work should include teachers.

    The field of learning research needs to become more integrated in focus and draw together relevant fields for interdisciplinary collaborations. To this end, mechanisms are needed to prepare a new generation of learning scientists by supporting interdisciplinary training for students and scientists to work together. It is important to expand the research scope so that basic researchers and educational researchers can work together on basic and applied issues and to facilitate ways for teachers and researchers to work together. Fields such as neuroscience and cognitive science have made important advances through their joint efforts, but researchers had to learn the methodologies and techniques of each discipline before new research studies could be conducted. Efforts are now needed to direct training programs in order to foster such interdisciplinary learning.

      • The committee recommends establishing national databases to encourage collaboration.

    To capitalize on the new developments in information systems, research scientists of varying disciplines should be linked together, and teachers should be included in these virtual dialogues. In addition to electronic linkages through websites, scientists should begin to share databases with one another and work with national databases that they can access electronically.

    Databases that link physics researchers with classroom physics educators, for example, have the potential to bring the two sectors closer to the core issues of the field. Basic researchers often have a poor understanding of why learners fail to grasp basic concepts of the field; teachers often fail to see relationships of core concepts that, if better understood from the standpoint of theory, could facilitate their teaching. National databases can foster interdisciplinary collaboration and uses of cross-disciplinary data, promote broader exploration of testable questions across datasets, increase the quality of data by maintaining accurate and uniform records, and promote cost-effectiveness through the sharing of research data. Furthermore, national databases that are built from representative samples of the changing school population have the potential of broadening the scope and power of research findings.

    Technology Research to Enhance Learning

    Because many computer-based technologies are relatively new to classrooms, basic premises about learning with these tools need to be examined with respect to the principles of learning.

      • The committee recommends extensive evaluation research be conducted through both small-scale studies and large-scale evaluations to determine the goals, assumptions, and uses of technologies in classrooms and the match or mismatch of these uses with the principles of learning and the transfer of learning.

    Teachers' Professional Development  

    Much of what constitutes the typical approach to formal teacher professional development is antithetical to what promotes teacher learning.

      • The committee recommends research to explain how people learn to be effective teachers.



    » See document: http://books.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/
     
  • Learning Strategies Database
    » See document: http://muskingum.edu/~cal/database/database.html
     
  • Theory+Into+Practice
    The Theory Into Practice (TIP) database contains descriptions of over 50 theories relevant to human learning and instruction. Each description includes the following sections: overview, scope/application, example, principles, and references. Relationships between theories are identified by highlighted text within articles. These relationships can be connections between specific theories or to concepts that underlie a number of theories. The theories are also indexed according to content domain and type of learning.


    Theories were selected for inclusion in the database based upon their relevance to some aspect of human learning and instruction. All theories come from published literature (English language only). Theories that focus on animal learning, neuropsychology, learning disabilities or teaching strategies are not included. The database also does not include theories of learning that have limited scientific support (see Druckman & Swets, 1988; Druckman & Bjork, 1991) or are primarily philosophical in nature (e.g ., Dewey, Freire, Illich, Polanyi).


    In cases where there are a number of researchers associated with a theoretical framework, the version associated with the originator or most prominent researcher is presented. The descriptions of theories provided in each article, including the examples and principles, were developed from the analysis of secondary sources as well as the primary works of the theorists. These secondary sources include: Bugelski (1971), Hilgard & Bower (1971), Klausmeier & Goodwin (1975), Lefrancois (1995), Reigeluth (1983), Richey (1986), Sahakian (1976), and Snelbecker (1974).


    One important consideration to keep in mind when reading the articles is that theories change over time. The descriptions herein present theories at a particular stage of development (usually their most well-known or recent form). Furthermore, almost all of the theories discussed are substantial; the brief summaries provided only outline the basic ideas and implications. TIP is intended to be a guide that identifies theory relevant to particular instructional settings.


    » See document: http://tip.psychology.org/
     
  • Advantages | Disadvantages | Preparation
    » See document: http://www.adprima.com/teachmeth.htm
     
    • DIRECT TEACHING
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Very specific learning targets.
      Students are told reasons why content is important - helps to clarify lesson objective.
      Relatively easy to measure student gains.
      Is a widely accepted instructional method.
      Good for teaching specific facts and basic skills.
      Can stifle teacher creativity.
      Requires well-organized content preparation and good oral communication skills.
      Steps must be followed in prescribed order.
      May not be effective for higher-order thinking skills, depending on the knowledge base and skill of the teacher.
      Content must be organized in advance.
      Teacher should have information about student prerequisites for the lesson.




       
    • COOPERATIVE LEARNING
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Helps foster mutual responsibility.
      Supported by research as an effective technique.
      Students learn to be patient, less critical and more compassionate.
      Some students don't work well this way.
      Loners find it hard to share answers.
      Aggressive students try to take over.
      Bright students tend to act superior.
      Decide what skills or knowledge are to be learned.
      Requires some time to prepare students. to learn how to work in groups.




       
    • LECTURE
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Factual material is presented in a direct, logical manner.
      May provide experiences that inspire
      - useful for large groups.
      Proficient oral skills are necessary.
      Audience is often passive.
      Learning is difficult to gauge.
      Communication is one-way.
      Not appropriate for children below grade 4.
      There should be a clear introduction and summary.
      Effectiveness related to time and scope of content.
      Is always audience specific; often includes examples, anecdotes.




       
    • LECTURE WITH DISCUSSION
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Involves students, at least after the lecture.
      Students can question, clarify and challenge.
      Lecture can be interspersed with discussion.
      Time constraints may affect discussion opportunities.
      Effectiveness is connected to appropriate questions and discussion; often requires teacher to "shift gears" quickly.
      Teacher should be prepared to allow questions during lecture, as appropriate.
      Teacher should also anticipate difficult questions and prepare appropriate responses in advance.




       
    • PANEL OF EXPERTS
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Experts present different opinions.
      Can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion.
      Frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging.
      Personalities may overshadow content.
      Experts are often not effective speakers.
      Subject may not be in logical order.
      Not appropriate for elementary age students.
      Logistics can be troublesome.
      Teacher coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summarizes.
      Teacher briefs panel.




       
    • DISCUSSION

       

      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Pools ideas and experiences from group
      Effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed
      Allows everyone to participate in an active process
      Not practical with more that 20 students
      A few students can dominate
      Some students may not participate
      Is time consuming
      Can get off the track
      Requires careful planning by teacher to guide discussion
      Requires question outline





       
    • SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

      Video


       
    • CASE STUDIES
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Develops analytic and problem solving skills
      Allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues
      Allows student to apply new knowledge and skills
      Students may not see relevance to own situation
      Insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results
      Not appropriate for elementary level
      Case must be clearly defined
      Case study must be prepared




       
    • ROLE PLAYING
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Introduces problem situation dramatically
      Provides opportunity for students to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view
      Allows for exploration of solutions
      Provides opportunity to practice skills
      Some students may be too self-conscious
      Not appropriate for large groups
      Some students may feel threatened
      Teacher has to define problem situation and roles clearly
      Teacher must give very clear instructions




       
    • WORKSHEET/SURVEYS

      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Introduces problem situation dramatically
      Provides opportunity for students to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view
      Allows for exploration of solutions
      Provides opportunity to practice skills
      Some students may be too self-conscious
      Not appropriate for large groups
      Some students may feel threatened
      Teacher has to define problem situation and roles clearly
      Teacher must give very clear instructions




       
    • GUEST SPEAKERS
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Personalizes topic
      Breaks down audience's stereotypes
      May not be a good speaker
      Contact speakers and coordinate
      Introduce speaker appropriately




       
    • VALUES CLARIFICATION
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Opportunity to explore values and beliefs
      Allows students to discuss values in a safe environment
      Gives structure to discussion
      Students may not be honest about their values.
      Students may be too self-conscious.
      Students may not be able to articulate their values in an effective way.
      Teacher must carefully prepare exercise
      Teacher must give clear instructions
      Teacher must prepare discussion




       
    • Video Tape Slides
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Develops analytic and problem solving skills
      Allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues
      Allows student to apply new knowledge and skills
      Students may not see relevance to own situation
      Insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results
      Not appropriate for elementary level
      Case must be clearly defined
      Case study must be prepared




       
    • Brainstorming
      Advantages
      Disadvantages
      Preparation
      Listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas.
      Encourages full participation because all ideas are equally recorded.
      Draws on group's knowledge and experience.
      Spirit of cooperation is created.
      One idea can spark off other ideas.
      Can be unfocused.
      Needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes.
      Students may have difficulty getting away from known reality.
      If not managed well, criticism and negative evaluation may occur.
      Value to students depends in part on their maturity level.
      Teacher selects issue.
      Teacher must be ready to intervene when the process is hopelessly bogged doen.




       

bullet2 Architecture Understanding

» See document: http://www.funderstanding.com/theories.cfm

  • Influences
    » See document: http://www.funderstanding.com/influences.cfm
     
    • Complexity
      Complexity

      Characteristics of a complex system


      A complex system is emergent. In an emergent system, smaller parts comprise a larger system. This larger system has properties the smaller units lack. For example, the brain is made up of individual neurons that, when functioning together, are capable of tasks no single neuron can perform alone. The new properties only emerge when the neurons work together.


      A complex system is unpredictable.

      A complex system contains many iterations and feedback/feedforward loops.

      In a complex system, decision-making is decentralized.


      Learning is a typically a "complex" activity. Most learning systems contain a number of separate parts that must work together for learning to occur. For example, a typical learning system consists of students, a teacher, a content focus, and resources. This system operates according to a fixed plan--the students follow the teacher's "rules."


      Learning environments


      A learning environment can be emergent. Working together, a group of learners can collectively build their knowledge of a topic, for instance, the phases of the moon. To do so, each learner might research a particular lunar phase, then share what he or she has learned with the rest of the group. This way, the group amasses a body of knowledge that no one person could have acquired alone.

      A learning environment can be unpredictable. An exploration of the phases of the moon could result in the group considering whether planets also have phases.

      A learning environment can contain many iterations and feedback/feedforward loops. People learn by trial and error--in other words, they learn from their mistakes.

      Decision-making in a learning environment can be decentralized. Groups can really thrive when students control the learning process, rather than the instructor.


      It's quite possible that learning occurs best on the "edge of chaos," where order and chaos meet. To see for yourself, check out these two resources:

      Kevin Kelley's outstanding book, {HYPERLINK "http://www.hotwired.com/staff/kevin/oocontrolpress.html"} Out of Control , examines how we can use biological theories to help us construct complex systems.

      If you want to experience complexity in action, try "building" your own system with {HYPERLINK "http://www.maxis.com/"} SimCity . This software offers a fantastic way to learn about urban planning, while viewing many of the principles of complexity in action. Plus, it's a blast!



       
    • Neural Networks
      Neural Networks

      Computers are the ideal metaphor for the human mind. Cognitive scientists have long used the serial processor as their model for the brain because this type of computer excels in deductive reasoning.

      Researchers are also exploring whether parallel processors can serve as models for how the brain functions. Parallel processors are computers that excel at pattern recognition, or inductive thinking. Parallel processors that can handle many instructions at once are called neural networks (or nets). Neural nets excel at inductive tasks, such as pattern recognition, for which many commercial applications are now being developed.

      It's possible these researchers will conclude that the brain is not a linear tool, as originally suggested by the serial model, but that the parallel model of processing information more closely represents how the mind works. Maybe the ultimate model of the human brain would be one that combines both the serial and parallel analogies.






       
    • Systems Theory
      Systems Theory

      In The Fifth Discipline, author Peter Senge details five characteristics that comprise what he calls a "learning organization"--in other words, an organization which cultivates an effective learning environment. The five traits of a learning organization are:

        1. Systems Thinking--Senge defines this as examining the patterns that connect the larger system. This kind of thinking is intuitive. In fact, children pick it up almost instantly.
        2. Personal Mastery--The key to this trait is to continually clarify and deepen our personal vision, focus our energies, develop patience, and see reality objectively.
        3. Shared Vision--This occurs when a group collectively develops a "picture of the future." Shared vision is the sum of the personal visions of all participating individuals. It is not something a person can learn by rote; instead, it stems from a deep-seated belief.
        4. Team Learning--The group IQ is higher than that of the individual. Just like in complex systems, unexpected results that are greater than the sum of their parts will emerge. However, people have to communicate with each other for team learning to take effect.
        5. Mental Models--Senge attest that we must continually question the deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, and perceptions that influence how we comprehend and react to the world. Once we understand our biases, we can begin to examine and deconstruct them.



       
    • Architecture
      Architecture

       Consider the following quotes by Christopher Alexander, architect and author of The Timeless Way of Building. Do you see any connections between the design of buildings and the design of learning environments?


      "Behind all processes which allow us to make buildings live, there is a single common process...but though this method is precise, it cannot be used mechanically. Indeed, it turns out, in the end, that what this method does is simply free us from all method...It is a process which lies deep in us: and only needs to be released. But these are not mechanical rules. They require the nature of the designer, and of the learner, to be considered. This makes things always changing and different."


      "We find out that we already know how to make buildings live, but that the power has been frozen in us: that we have it, but are afraid to use it: that we are crippled by our fears, and crippled by the methods and the images which we use to overcome these fears. But we learn too, that this capacity in us is not accessible, until we first go through the discipline which teaches us to let go of our fears. It is instead a process which lies deep in us: and only needs to be released. It is a process which brings order out of nothing but ourselves; it cannot be attained, but it will happen of its own accord, if we will only let it."


      "At the human level of complexity, then, there is a distinction between systems which are true to their 'inner nature,' and those which aren't. Not all of us are equally true to our inner nature, or equally real, or equally whole. And exactly the same is true in those larger systems, outside us, which we call our world. Not all parts of the world are equally true to themselves, equally real, equally whole."



       
  • Theory
     
  • Patterns
    Patterns

    Christopher Alexander's work on {HYPERLINK "architecture.cfm"}     pattern languages  provides a framework for thinking about the design of houses. We believe the same thing is needed for the design of educational products. A pattern language is like grammar--each part contains different ways to define how we think about education. Funderstanding uses a pattern language to provide a structure to our design. Within this structure, we use the pattern language to express ourselves in a way that's easily understood by others. The major components of our grammar are outlined below.

    We apply the "grammatical rules" of our pattern language by starting with the broader issues and working our way down to the specifics. For example, when we confront a new challenge, we tackle the large groups first. Once we understand how the large groups operate, we determine what components of knowledge management are appropriate for them. Then we determine what needs to be done to seed a community of practice. Next we select the relevant learning styles. We don't always use all the components detailed below; however, we use some of them on every project. Because this process is a work-in-progress, we welcome your comments on it.

      1. Large groups
          • Knowledge management
          • User-contributed content
          • Intelligent agents
          • Expert view
      2. Small groups
          • Communities of practice
          • Multiple perspectives
      3. Individual learning styles
          • Just-in-time
          • Simulation
          • Tutorial
          • Assessment
      4. Intrapersonal skills
          • Brain-based learning
          • Cognitive psychology
          • Emotional Intelligence
            • Self-motivation
            • Mood management
            • Self-awareness



     

bullet2 Funding

  • Kellog
    Strategy 1: Mobilize youth, families, and communities to influence institutions and policies that impact learning and achievement for vulnerable children and youth.


    Strategy 2: Forge partnerships between education institutions and communities to promote learning, academic performance, and workforce preparation among vulnerable young people.


    » See document: http://www.wkkf.org/
     
    • Youth | Education
       Overview


      The W.K. Kellogg Foundation has a long history of supporting the education and development of young people. Following Mr. Kellogg's wishes, the Kellogg Foundation was founded as a child welfare foundation that focused its initial work in Michigan. Today, Youth and Education Programs work nationwide as an arm of one of the nation's largest private foundations dedicated to improving the lives of youth through education and healthy development.


       


      Through 2008, the Youth and Education team will focus on improving learning for young people especially those most vulnerable to poor achievement so children can enter school ready to learn, more adolescents are able to achieve, and young adults are prepared for meaningful work or further education.


       


      The Kellogg Foundation will employ a number of approaches in addressing this theme. One major approach will develop a more seamless educational pipeline, especially engaging post-secondary education institutions with communities to achieve mutually beneficial goals. Other programs will support partnerships among families, communities, and institutions including schools and state agencies so that they will work together for children.  


       


      Youth and Education 2001-2008


      Goal: Support healthy infant, child, and youth development by mobilizing, strengthening, and aligning systems that affect children's learning.


      Strategy 1: Mobilize youth, families, and communities to influence institutions and policies that impact learning and achievement for vulnerable children and youth.


          Initiative--SPARK: Supporting Partnerships to Assure Ready Kids


      Strategy 2: Forge partnerships between education institutions and communities to promote learning, academic performance, and workforce preparation among vulnerable young people.


          Initiative--New Options for Youth Through Engaged Institutions


       


      In addition to the goal, two strategies provide primary programming guidance. Each strategy is supported by an initiative as well as by individual grants that address the strategy in innovative ways. At this time, the Youth and Education team is not accepting proposals for the initiatives. However, the team is interested in programs that address the goal and strategies in creative ways. For more information, see Youth and Education General Grantmaking.


       


      In support of strategy 1 is the SPARK (Supporting Partnerships to Assure Ready Kids) initiative, which will encourage more seamless transitions to school for children in eight states and localities. SPARK targets children who are most vulnerable for being unprepared to enter school. Programs will mobilize partnerships of families, caregivers, communities, and states to better coordinate preschool and formal school settings. The goal of SPARK is to ensure both ready children and schools that are ready to receive them.


       


      The focal initiative for strategy 2 is called New Options for Youth Through Engaged Institutions. This initiative will support partnerships between communities and post-secondary education institutions to create innovative learning alternatives for vulnerable adolescents, ages 14-20, who do not succeed in traditional environments. The initiative is designed to find bold, new ways to help young people achieve higher levels of learning and prepare for meaningful work or post-secondary education.  


       


      The Youth and Education team develops and manages the strategic initiatives, which generally encompass 60 percent of total resources. The other 40 percent of grants encompass non-initiative work through strategic or goal-focused grants.


       


      During implementation of the strategies and initiatives, the Youth and Education team remains committed to completing the work of several "carryover" initiatives. While these obligations continue through varying periods of commitment, the Foundation will carry out this work with identified partners and projects. No new proposals are being accepted for these ongoing initiatives, which include ENLACE (Engaging Latino Communities for Education), Kellogg Youth Initiative Partnerships, Middle Start, and the Native American Higher Education Initiative.


      » See document: http://www.wkkf.org/Programming/Overview.aspx?CID=3
       
    • Grant Seeking


      Grantseeking

      What we fund

      The Foundation will consider requests that fall within our established or developing programming areas, as listed below. Most grants are awarded in the United States, Latin America and the Caribbean, and six southern Africa countries including Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe. To be eligible for a grant, the organization or institution, as well as the purpose of the proposed project, must qualify under regulations of the United States Internal Revenue Service as a 501c3 organization. For information on Section 501c3 status, follow this link to the IRS.

      What we don't fund

      The Foundation generally does not make loans and does not provide grants for:


          * operational phases of established programs;

          * capital purposes (purchasing, remodeling, or furnishing of facilities and equipment, except as part of a programmatic effort);

          * separate budget line items labeled as "indirect or overhead costs";

          * conferences;

          * films, television, or radio programs unless they are an integral parts of a project or program already being funded;

          * endowments or development campaigns;

          * religious programs; or

          * individuals.


      Note: Research, planning or studies are sometimes funded only as part of a broader program or Foundation-funded project.

      Applying For A Grant


      We do not have pre-printed application forms, but encourage grant applicants to submit their requests electronically using the Foundation's online application/form. Grant applications are also accepted through the mail. The content of your initial contact should include certain pieces information. Please review the How to Apply for a Grant section and our Frequently Asked Questions to get an understanding of how we process grants and what information to send.

      Explore Current Grants by Programming Area

      Health  

      Food Systems and Rural Development

      Youth and Education

      Philanthropy and Volunteerism

      Greater Battle Creek

      Cross Programming Work: Devolution

      Southern Africa

      Latin America and the Caribbean



       
    • Process


      How to Apply for a Grant


          The Kellogg Foundation is able to fund only a very small percentage of the requests it currently receives. Many requests are declined, not because they are lacking in merit, but because they do not match our current programming interests or programming guidelines.


          The Kellogg Foundation does not have pre-printed application forms. We encourage grant applicants to submit their requests electronically using the Foundation's online form. Those who do not wish to apply electronically should submit a preproposal letter through the mail (address provided at the end of this section).  The preproposal should be up to five pages in length and contain the following minimal information:  


              * contact name

              * legal organization name (please spell out acronyms where possible)

              * complete street and mailing address

              * phone numbers and e-mail addresses (where possible)

              * grant purpose statement (40-50 words maximum)

              * total dollar amount requested

              * project activities, objectives, targeted audience(s), operational procedures, and time schedules (or anticipated duration of the proposed grant)

              * anticipated outcomes/impacts/sustainability  

              * personnel and financial resources available and needed


          Preproposals submitted electronically should use a Word/WordPerfect format or entered into our online form. Preproposals sent through the mail should be submitted on standard-size (8-1/2" x 11"), light-colored paper. If you choose to submit the preproposal via mail, please do not provide a plastic-bound or expensively produced document.


          Due to the large volume of materials received, please do not send the following: invoices, IRS information, board of directors or staff lists/job descriptions, resumes or staff bios, annual reports/publications, letters of support, news articles, photographs, videos, cassettes, CDs or books. At this preliminary stage, personal visits to the Foundation by prospective grantees are discouraged.


          The Foundation gives prompt consideration to all requests / applications. The initial review may take up to three months to complete. If the proposed project falls within the Foundation's Programming Interests and Guidelines and resources are available, the applicant may be asked to develop a more detailed proposal.


          Written requests / applications should be addressed to:


              Mrs. Deborah A. Rey

              Supervisor of Proposal Processing

              W.K. Kellogg Foundation

              One Michigan Avenue East

              Battle Creek, Michigan 49017-4058



      » See document: http://www.wkkf.org/Grants/Process.aspx
       
    • Online Application
      » See document: http://www.wkkf.org/Grants/Application.aspx
       
    • Tips | Resources


      Tips for Successful Grantseeking

      The W.K. Kellogg Foundation cannot fund every request and we realize that seeking funding can be time consuming and even frustrating. Here are a series of links that may inform your process.

      Listing of Resources on the World Wide Web

      The following links are provided as a courtesy only. They lead to nationally and internationally recognized funding organizations that are easily found on the World Wide Web. Please read our policy on offsite links.


          * Council of Foundations

          * Charity and Philanthropy at Yahoo (explore issues and causes)

          * The Foundation Center

          * GuideStar

          * Women & Philanthropy

          * National Science Foundation:  Also see:

            http://grants.nih.gov/grants/index.cfm

          * Association of Small Foundations

          * Forum of Regional Association of Grantmakers

          * Grantmakers for Effective Organizations

          * New Tithing Group

          * National Center for Family Philanthropy

          * The ePhilanthropy Foundation


      The Insider’s Guide to Grantmaking


      How Foundations Find, Fund and Manage Effective Programs


      A book by

      Joel J. Orosz.


      Author Joel Orosz not only introduces readers to the history, structure, and function of foundations in society, but also explores the complex role that program officers play in their day-to-day activities. He provides real-world advice on a myriad of tasks – from meeting with applicants and reviewing their proposals to assisting the funded project and managing foundation initiatives.


      He also asks critical questions about this growing and evolving profession. What kind of person should become a grantmaker? How does one avoid the seven temptations of philanthropy?


      Orosz is a program director in Philanthropy and Volunteerism at the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. He earned his Ph.D. in American history from Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio.


      Throughout the book, Orosz informs his lively, thoughtful discussions with his own considerable experience in grantmaking.


      Contents include:


          * Making Sense of the Grantmaking Universe

          * Grantmaking: The Human Factor

          * Building Relationships with Applicants

          * Reviewing Proposals

          * Declining Proposals

          * Responding to Proposals

          * Site Visits

          * Writing the Funding Document

          * Presenting the Funding Document

          * Managing the Project

          * Closing the Project

          * Leveraging Impact

          * Influencing Policy

          * Initiative-Based Grantmaking

          * The Ethics of Grantmaking

          * Epilogue: The Future of Formal Philanthropy


      The Insider’s Guide to Grantmaking is available in hardcover (276 pages). It can be ordered directly from the publisher.


      » See document: http://www.wkkf.org/Grants/Grantseeking_Resources.aspx
       
  • NSF
    » See document: http://www.nsf.gov/
     
    • Grant Policy Manual
      » See document: http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2002/nsf02151/start.htm
       
    • Proposal Guide
      # Introduction


         1. Overview

         2. The Proposal

            Proprietary or Privileged Information

         3. Who May Submit Proposals

            Categories of Proposers

         4. When to Submit Proposals

         5. How to Submit Proposals

               1. Electronic Requirements

                  Special Instructions for Proposals That Contain High Resolution Graphics or Other Graphics Where Exact Color Representations are Required for Proper Interpretation by the Reviewer

               2. Submission Instructions

               3. Acknowledgement of Proposal Receipt


      # Proposal Preparation Instructions


         1. Conformance with Instructions for Proposal Preparation

         2. Format of the Proposal

               1. Proposal Pagination Instructions

               2. Proposal Margin and Spacing Requirements

         3. Proposal Contents

               1. Single Copy Documents

                     1. Information About Principal Investigators/Project Directors and co-Principal Investigators/co-Project Directors

                     2. Deviation Authorization (if applicable)

                     3. List of Suggested Reviewers or Reviewers Not to Include

                     4. Proprietary or Privileged Information if applicable)

                     5. Proposal Certifications

                            * Certification for Authorized Organizational Representative or Individual Applicant

                            * Certification Regarding Conflict of Interest

                            * Drug-Free Workplace

                            * Debarment and Suspension

                            * Certification Regarding Lobbying

               2. Sections of the Proposal

                     1. Cover Sheet

                     2. Project Summary

                     3. Table of Contents

                     4. Project Description (Including Results from Prior NSF Support)