Using discussion of an analogous system as a way to help
people get common and creative insights into
the operation of the CAS they are in.
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Potential
context for use:
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-
Members of the group have differing, but largely unexpressed,
views of the mission, purpose, or
method of working together.
- The group seems stuck in its approach to issues (stuck on an attractor) and needs
some creative
insight.
Metaphor is a tool of language in which one thing is
said to be something else (or to be like something
else). Exploration of the similarities and differences between the two things gives a group a way of
thinking
and a way of seeing a situation that can bring creative insight about ways to move forward. For example,
we
might say: "We want our HMO clinic teams to function as well as the NASA space shuttle team"
and then
explore the implications of this statement.
The predominant metaphors in use in organizations today
are those of a machine and a military operation. If
an organization is a machine, then we just need to specify the parts well, and make sure each part does
its
part. If an organization is a military operation, then command, control, and communication needs to
be
hierarchical, survival is key, and sacrificial heroes are desired (although no one really wants to be
one
themselves). Most of today's organizational artifacts-job descriptions, organization charts, root-cause
analysis, "turf battles," and so on-emerge from these largely unexpressed and undiscussed
metaphors.
The basic problem with these metaphors when applied to
a CAS is that they ignore interaction effects
among the agents, or worse, simply assume that these interactions can be tightly controlled through
better
(read: more) specification. While there are many situations in health care where the machine and military
metaphors are useful-for example, a "code blue team" or a surgical process-there are also
many situations
where these metaphors are grossly inadequate.
When we use the tool of metaphor in a CAS we are seeking
to make explicit the metaphors that guide
interactions within the system, and we are seeking new metaphors that can provide fresh insight into
the
dynamics of the system.
Gareth Morgan suggests a number of generic metaphors
that we can use to create dialogue and shared
meaning within groups. Several of Morgan's generic metaphors are described in the attachment. A
facilitator can introduce these metaphors and challenge the group to extract key themes that can then
be
applied to the real-world CAS with which the group is concerned.
Before using this aide: What metaphors is the
group unconsciously using in its current approach?
After using this aide: How will the group transform
its new insight into action? What plan do we have for
keeping the new metaphor alive so that we don't slip back into the old metaphor?
There are several examples in the Tales of Complexity
section that illustrate the use of metaphor to help
provide new insight into common organizational issues. In addition to the Tales cited in the margin,
see also
the various books and articles described in the Bibliography.
Some of Gareth Morgan's Generic Metaphors
The eight metaphors described below are just a few of
the literally infinite number of useful metaphors.
They are described here to pique your interest and imagination. The best metaphors are those that emerge
during discourse with others within a CAS.
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Strategic Termites.
Termites are master builders. Termite
mounds are intricate affairs that are the
tallest structures on earth when compared
to the height of their builders. But every
termite mound is unique; there does not
appear to be a detailed blueprint that the
insects follow. Instead, Morgan points out,
"The 'masterpiece' evolves from random,
chaotic activity guided by what seems to
be an overall sense of purpose and
direction, but in an open-ended manner."
Example of a provocative question for a
group:
How would we approach strategic of
financial planning if we were termites?
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Political Football or Tug-of-War.
Many organizational issues have important political aspects
to them. Powerful groups and individuals,
often with hidden agendas, are at play within the CAS. Technical or process-oriented solutions to issues
can fail miserably if the political aspects of the issue are not acknowledged openly and addressed.
To make
the political dimension of the CAS discussible, Morgan suggests the metaphor of the issue as a political
football or tug-of-war. Since the discussion is uncomfortable, several rounds of dialogue may be needed,
but this aspect of the CAS becomes more potentially tractable with each such round.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
-
In what ways might our issue, or the people who will
be involved in its resolution, be like a
political football (or tug-of-war)? Focus the discussion on: who is doing the kicking (or pulling)?
in
what direction? with what force? for what reasons? with what likely outcome? who or what exactly
is being kicked (or pulled)? why can't they resist?
Self-Organizing "Blobs."
Morgan suggest that images from nature such as octopi,
amoebas, spiders, and dandelions can help groups
better visualize creative ways to organize and accomplish their purposes.. All of these "blob"
metaphors
focus discussion on aspects of self-organization and adaptability in accomplishing a purpose.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
-
The facilitator might introduce a specific metaphor for
discussion and ask: How would we go
about our task if we were a _____?
Alternatively, the facilitator can challenge the group members to come up with their own
metaphors by asking: What animal or other image from nature captures for you the essence of how
we should approach our task?
The Gulf
The gulf is a metaphor for the deep organizational pool
into which people and issues can fall, never to
emerge again. Everyone in the organization knows (or learns quickly) about the gulf. Everyone knows
(or
learns quickly) that venturing into the gulf is a "career limiting move." An example of an
organizational gulf
might be: challenging policies or programs that come down from headquarters. Even if the policies or
programs are obviously flawed, and everyone seems to know it, people have learned from past experience
that it is personally damaging to say anything. Silence is one of the main factors surrounding and
sustaining the gulf. Morgan suggests that naming the gulf is helpful, because it breaks the silence
but
provides a sager, depersonalized way to discuss it.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
Deerhunting.
(Morgan attributes this metaphor to his colleague Lin
Ward.) "Deerhunters set out for the forest, shoot a
deer, and carry it back home. Right? Well, not exactly. They carry the body back, but the essence of
the
living deer remains in the forest." Organizations often do the same thing when they "implement
programs"
such as quality management, empowerment, visioning, and so on. They have the artifacts to show that
they
did the program, but they do not have the "living essence" of the ideas that underlie the
program. False
information about a false reality spreads through the CAS of the organization degrading the chances
for
positive, emergent behaviors. As with the Gulf, the Deerhunting metaphor gives a name to this
phenomenon and provides a means for discussing what is happening.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
Holograms (or Fractals).
A hologram is a three-dimensional photograph; you've
seen them in shops or on credit cards. An
interesting property of a hologram is that if you cut it into pieces, each piece displays the entire
picture!
Similarly, look at a tree. The branching structure of the tree is basically the same from the trunk
all the way
out to the ends of the limbs. Whether you look at the tree as a whole, or break off a branch and study
it
alone, the number and style of branches at a branch-point is a characteristic feature of the type of
tree you
are looking at. This property of a unit of structure that is replicated at various levels is a harmonious,
self-
organizing feature of nature.
We can use this metaphor in exploring more harmonious
organizational structures by focusing on the need
to build an organizational "kernel" and then replicate this at all levels of the organization.
For example,
imagine a leadership "kernel" consisting of a trio of a physician, nurse, and administrator
who accept
collective accountability for the success of whatever they are charged to oversee. Once we understand
this
"kernel," the hologram or fractal metaphor suggests that we should establish such leadership
trios at all
levels of the organization. If there is a level at which these three have a separate, not collectively
accountable structure, there may be dys-harmony in the CAS.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
Team Metaphors.
"Team" is an over-used and under-defined word
in current organizational jargon. Everyone is forming
teams; everyone knows they need to be a good "team player" in order to be successful. But
there are many,
diverse images of a good team and how it operates. Successful team behavior is very different when one
is
on a basketball team (where fluid flow is valued), versus a baseball team (where roles are very clearly
defined), versus a community theater group (where all roles are important but some get more visibility
than
others), versus the NASA space shuttle team (where technical expertise and detailed planning are key).
In
general, it is not a good assumption to image that everyone in a CAS has the same mental picture of
how
they should interact on a "team." Explicit discussion is very valuable.
Example of a provocative question for a group:
1. Thoughts
